Oxygen-related biofacies in marine strata: an overview and update

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Abstract
Recent studies of contemporary basins and ancient strata have provided a basis for expanding and refining early oxygen-related marine biofacies models. New observations permit higher resolution in palaeoecological, palaeoceanographic, and basin analyses. Five oxygen-related biofacies are currently recognized. (1) Anaerobic biofacies: well-laminated strata lacking in situ macro- and microbenthic body fossils and microbioturbation; may contain well-preserved remains of nektonic vertebrates, epiplanktonic or otherwise transported invertebrates, and faecal material of planktonic and/or nektonic origin. (2) Quasi-anaerobic biofacies: laminated strata, subtly disrupted by microbioturbation, containing microbenthic body fossils but lacking in situ macrobenthic body fossils; allochthonous body fossils and recognizable planktonic faecal material may be common. (3) Exaerobic biofacies: laminated strata similar to that of anaerobic or quasianaerobic biofacies but containing in situ epibenthic macroinvertebrate body fossils. (4) Dysaerobic biofacies: bioturbated strata characterized by low-diversity assemblages of relatively small, poorly calcified macrobenthic body fossils or absence of body fossils altogether. (5) Aerobic biofacies: bioturbated strata (where physical processes do not dominate) containing diverse assemblages of relatively large, heavily calcified macrobenthic body fossils. Recognition of these biofacies facilitates the recognition of relative palaeo-oxygenation gradients along the seafloor, vertically across the sediment-water interface, and through time. Application of sensitive trace-fossil models permits even more detailed reconstructions of benthic oxygenation histories for bioturbated strata, particularly those that fall within the previously defined dysaerobic realm.