The Effects of Token Representation on Participation in Small Decision-Making Groups

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Abstract
This research attempts to directly test Rosabeth Kanter's hypothesis that a numerical minority in an unbalanced sex ratio group will be inhibited in its performance in the group. The staff meetings of counseling agencies with different sex compositions were analyzed in terms of the contributions of male and female members to the group process. Three sex ratio situations were examined: male predominant groups, female predominant groups and sex ratio balanced groups. The results confirm the Kanter hypothesis for both males and females in numerical minority situations. However, the phenomenon appears most pronounced for females in male predominant groups. The author suggests some possible reasons for these results, as well as implications for the participation of women in efforts to increase industrial and economic democracy.