Antipredator behaviour and skin glands in the New Zealand native frogs, genusLeiopelma

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Abstract
The frogs of the genus Leiopelma exhibit characteristic antipredator behaviours. All three living species utter squeaks or chirps when annoyed. The acoustic structure of the vocalisations varied between individuals within a species. Vocalisations probably serve no function for intraspecific communication. Under duress, the terrestrial species, L. hamiltoni and L. archeyi, both assumed a stifflegged stance while rearing up, extended the legs, raised the body, and butted the head. The more aquatic species, L. hochstetteri, did not assume so rigid a head-butting stance as it rarely raised its body or extended its legs. This species was more apt to try to escape. These behavioural differences correlated with differential distributions of defensive granular glands in the skin. The glands were concentrated into discrete dorsal patches arranged in six longitudinal rows in L. hamiltoni and L. archeyi. The anterior end of the middle row terminates in what has been termed a parotoid gland. In L. hochstetteri, the granular glands were distributed diffusely over the sides and belly and were sparse or absent from the dorsum. Head-butting and the presence of dorsal gland concentrations in L. hamiltoni and L. archeyi are correlated components of an antipredator defense adapted for terrestrial life.

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