Outcome Frames in Bilateral Negotiation: Resistance to Concession Making and Frame Adoption

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Abstract
This chapter reviews research and theory concerned with outcome frames in negotiation—the negotiator's conception of the dispute as involving gains (gain frame) or losses (loss frame). We argue that because losses are more aversive than equivalent gains are attractive, loss framed negotiators should display greater resistance to concession making and settle less easily than negotiators with a gain frame. A review of frame research supports this argument. Furthermore, we propose that during negotiations, disputants communicate about their frame, and tend to adopt the frame communicated by their opponent. Several experiments are reviewed that show this frame adoption effect to be likely especially when the negotiators themselves have a gain rather than a loss frame. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the importance of outcome frames to the escalation of social conflict.

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