Retinoid teratogenicity in the macaque: Verification of dosing regimen

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Abstract
To further define teratogenicity associated with 13‐cis‐retinoic acid (13‐cis‐RA) in the cynomolgus monkey, the drug was orally administered on three different treatment regimens. Experiment (Exp.) 1 (2.5 mg/kg/day, gestational day [GD] 12–27, n = 11) investigated the teratogenicity of a single daily dose of 13‐cis‐RA administered shortly after embryo implantation. Pharmacokinetic sampling was done to determine retinoid profiles on the first (GD12) and last (GD27) days of treatment. Exposure to 13‐cis‐RA during early organogenesis in Exp. 2 (2.5 mg/kg/day, GD20–27, and 2 × 2.5 mg/kg/day, GD28–30, n = 5) investigated the potential adverse effects of 13‐cis‐RA on the developing limb. The use of multiple doses of 13‐cis‐RA in Exp. 3 (2 × 2.5 mg/kg/day, GD26–27, n = 5) investigated the necessity of double dosing on the induction of retinoid embryopathy in the macaque. Malformations of retinoid target organs as well as embryolethality were most prevalent when single daily doses of 13‐cis‐RA were administered during pre‐ and early organogenesis in Exp. 1. Moreover, multiple doses on GD26–27 failed to induce any manifestation of abnormal development in Exp. 3. These results confirm that the lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) in macaques is 2.5 rather than 5.0 times greater than that observed in human pregnancies. Exposure during forelimb development (GD20–30) in Exp. 2 was unsuccessful in inducing defects of this skeletal region, although defects in several retinoid target organs (i.e., cerebellum and internal ear) were present, indicating that a teratogenic threshold was achieved. Pharmacokinetic analysis of 13‐cis‐RA and its metabolites on GD12 and 27 in Exp. 1 showed considerable exposure to the administered drug and its 4‐oxo‐metabolite. In contrast, the exposure to all‐trans‐RA was negligible. The results support the use of a specific treatment schedule in early gestation in the macaque as the most appropriate model for characterizing the teratogenic potential of retinoids in humans.