Toxicity of Naturally Occurring Levels of the Penicillium Mycotoxins Citrinin, Ochratoxin A, and Penicillic Acid to the Corn Earworm, Heliothis zea , and the Fall Armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

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Abstract
The oral toxicity of the Penicillium mycotoxins, alone and in combination, to Heliothis zea (Boddie) and Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) at naturally occurring levels was evaluated. Ochratoxin A and citrinin were the most toxic alone to both insect species and caused abnormalities in the Malpighian tubules. The combination of ochratoxin A and penicillic acid was synergistically most toxic to H. zea , whereas the combination of ochratoxin A and citrinin was synergistically most toxic to S. frugiperda . The production of frequently found combinations of mycotoxins by Penicillium fungi likely to be encountered by these insects is discussed in relation to the results obtained.