Methods for the measurement of low total pressure

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Abstract
The physical principles of low total pressure measurement are presented and the associated specific problems discussed. Low pressure measurement under isotropic conditions is briefly reviewed. Emphasis is placed on the analysis of the conditions of pressure determination in nonisotropic media. The principles underlying the design of instruments for the measurement of the molecular flow in terms of pressure, such as the pressure converter and the beam detector, are presented. Experiments for the study and measurement of the density and distribution of the molecular flux evolved in high vacuum chambers from distributed or localised sources are described. Finally, the techniques for pressure measurement in sealed-off products are reviewed.